Define the Enlightenment.
An intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional doctrines.
Describe the main idea of Martin Luther's 95 Theses (1517).
Criticism of the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and a call for reform in the Church.
Define the term 'nationalism' in the 19th century.
A political ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation or nation-state and often involves a sense of national consciousness.
Describe the social structure of feudal Europe.
A hierarchy system with the king at the top, followed by nobles, knights, and peasants at the bottom.
Explain the main causes of the Russian Revolution (1917).
Economic hardship, war weariness from World War I, and discontent with the autocratic regime of Tsar Nicholas II.
Define absolutism.
A form of monarchy in which the monarch holds supreme autocratic authority, principally not being restricted by written laws or customs.
Describe the Cold War.
A state of political and military tension after World War II, primarily between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Explain the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
The overthrow of King James II of England by a union of English Parliamentarians and the Dutch William of Orange.
Explain the main ideas of John Locke and their influence.
A philosopher who argued for the principles of natural rights, government by consent, and the separation of church and state; significantly influenced Enlightenment thought.
Describe the purpose of the League of Nations.
An international organization established after World War I to promote peace and cooperation between nations.
Define the term 'balance of power' in European history.
A diplomatic strategy to prevent any one nation from becoming too powerful, often involving alliances and treaties.
Define the term 'social Darwinism'.
The application of Darwin's theory of natural selection to social, political, and economic issues, often used to justify political conservatism, imperialism, and racism.
Define mercantilism.
An economic theory that trade generates wealth and is stimulated by the accumulation of profitable balances.
Describe the causes and consequences of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).
Caused by Bismarck's manipulation of political tensions; led to the unification of Germany and the decline of French influence.
Define 'Chartism' and its main goals.
A working-class movement for political reform in Britain in the 19th century, seeking universal suffrage and other democratic rights.
Describe the main impacts of the Reformation.
It led to the creation of Protestant churches and significant religious, political, and social changes.
Explain the main causes of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).
Religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants, political power struggles among European states, and the Holy Roman Empire's internal disputes.
Describe the main provisions of the Treaty of Versailles (1919).
It imposed punitive reparations on Germany, redrew national boundaries, and laid the groundwork for the League of Nations.
Describe the main causes of the Crimean War (1853-1856).
Russian expansion, conflicts over religious guardianship in the Holy Land, and the decline of the Ottoman Empire.
Define 'imperialism' in the context of European history.
A policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.
Define 'absolutism' and give an example of an absolute monarch.
A form of monarchy in which the monarch has absolute power among his or her people; an example is Louis XIV of France.
Define the term 'Realpolitik'.
A system of politics based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations, often associated with 19th-century statesmen like Bismarck.
Describe the impact of the Columbian Exchange.
The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Describe the Holy Roman Empire.
A multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806.
Define the Renaissance.
A cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy, marked by a revival of classical learning and art.